Bernard Lewis 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 

Bernard Lewis, FBA (bom May 31, 1916) is a British- American historian, scholar in 
Oriental studies, and political commentator. He is the Cleveland E. Dodge Professor 
Emeritus of Near Eastern Studies at Princeton University. He specializes in the 
history of Islam and the interaction between Islam and the West, and is especially 
famous in academic circles for his works on the history of the Ottoman EmpireJ 1 

Lewis served in the British Army in the Royal Armoured Corps and Intelligence 
Corps during the Second World War before being seconded to the Foreign Office. 

After the war, he returned to the School of Oriental and African Studies at the 
University of London and was appointed to the new chair in Near and Middle 
Eastern History. 

Lewis is a widely read expert on the Middle East, and is regarded as one of the 
West’s leading scholars of that region J 2 His advice has been frequently sought by 
policymakers, including the George W. Bush administration.^ In the Encyclopedia 
of Historians and Historical Writing Martin Kramer, whose Ph.D. thesis was 
directed by Lewis, considered that, over a 60-year career, he has emerged as "the 
most influential postwar historian of Islam and the Middle East."^ Lewis is known 
for his Armenian Genocide denialJ 4 ^ 5 ^ 6 He is also famous for his public debates with the late Edward Said concerning the 
latter's book Orientalism (1978), which harshly criticized Lewis. 



Contents 

■ 1 Biography 

■ 2 Research 

■ 2.1 Armenian Genocide 

■ 3 Views and influence on contemporary pohtics 

■ 3.1 Stance on the Iraq War 

■ 3.2 Alleged nuclear threat from Iran 

■ 4 Debates with Edward Said 

■ 5 Debates with Noam Chomsky 

■ 6 Books 

■ 7 References 

■ 8 External li nks 


Biography 

Bernard Lewis was bom to middle-class Jewish parents in Stoke Newington, London. He became interested in languages and 
history while preparing for his bar mitzvahJ 7 

Lewis graduated in 1936 from the School of Oriental Studies (now SOAS, School of Oriental and African Studies) at the 
University of London with a B.A. in History with special reference to the Near and Middle East, and obtaining his Ph.D. 
three years later, also from SOAS, specializing in the History of IslamJ 8 ^ Lewis also studied law, going part of the way 
toward becoming a solicitor, but returned to study Middle Eastern history. He undertook post-graduate studies at the 
University of Paris, where he studied with the orientalist Louis Massignon and earned the "Diplome des Etudes Semitiques" 
in 1937.^ He returned to SOAS in 1938 as an assistant lecturer in Islamic History. 


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During the Second World War, Lewis served in the British Army in the Royal Armoured Corps and Intelligence Corps in 
1940-41, before being seconded to the Foreign Office. After the war, he returned to SOAS, and in 1949, at the age of 33, he 
was appointed to the new chair in Near and Middle Eastern History 

In 1974, aged 57, Lewis accepted a joint position at Princeton University and the Institute for Advanced Study, also located 
in Princeton, New Jersey. The terms of his appointment were such that Lewis taught only one semester per year, and being 
free from administrative responsibilities, he could devote more time to research than previously. Consequently, Lewis's 
arrival at Princeton marked the beginning of the most prolific period in his research career during which he published 
numerous books and articles based on the previously accumulated materials In addition, it was in the U.S. that Lewis 
became a public intellectual. Upon his retirement from Princeton in 1986, Lewis served at Cornell University until 1990.^ 

Lewis has been a naturalized citizen of the United States since 1982. He married Ruth Helene Oppenhejm in 1947 with 
whom he had a daughter and a son before the marriage was dissolved in 1974.^ 

In 1966, Lewis was a founding member of the learned society, Middle East Studies Association of North America (MESA), 
but in 2007, he broke away and founded Association for the Study of the Middle East and Africa (ASMEA) to challenge 
MESA, which the New York Sun noted as "dominated by academics who have been critical of Israel and of America's role 
in the Middle East."^ 1 ^ The organization was formed as an academic society dedicated to promoting the highest standards of 
research and teaching in Middle Eastern and African studies, and related fields/ 12 ^ with Lewis as Chairman of its academic 
council. 

In 1990 the National Endowment for the Humanities selected Lewis for the Jefferson Lecture, the U.S. federal government's 
highest honor for achievement in the humanities. His lecture, entitled "Western Civilization: A View from the East,"^ 1 2 was 
revised and reprinted in The Atlantic Monthly under the title "The Roots of Muslim Rage."^ 14 His 2007 Irving Kristol 
Lecture, given to the American Enterprise Institute, was published as Europe and Islam (http://Mmw.aei.org/book/893) . 

Research 

Lewis' influence extends beyond the academe to the general public. He is a pioneer of the social and economic history of the 
Middle East and is famous for his extensive research of the Ottoman archives^ 1 He began his research career with the study 
of medieval Arab, especially Syrian, history J 1 His first article, dedicated to professional guilds of medieval Islam, had been 
widely regarded as the most authoritative work on the subject for about thirty years However, after the establishment of 
the state of Israel in 1948, scholars of Jewish origin found it more and more difficult to conduct archival and field research in 
the Arab countries, where they were suspected of espionage. Therefore, Lewis switched to the study of the Ottoman Empire, 
while continuing to research Arab history through the Ottoman archives, ^ which had only recently been opened to Western 
researchers. A series of articles that Lewis published over the next several years revolutionized the history of the Middle 
East by giving a broad picture of Islamic society, including its government, economy, and demographics^ 15 ^ 

Lewis argues that the Middle East is currently backward and its decline was a largely self-inflicted condition resulting from 
both culture and religion, as opposed to the post-colonialist view which posits the problems of the region as economic and 
political maldevelopment mainly due to the 19th century European colon iz ation \. citation needed] | n ^ 1 qg2 work Muslim 
Discovery of Europe, Lewis argues that Muslim societies could not keep pace with the West and that "Crusader successes 
were due in no small part to Muslim weakness. Further, he suggested that as early as the 11th century Islamic societies 
were decaying, primarily the byproduct of internal problems like "cultural arrogance," which was a barrier to creative 
borrowing, rather than external pressures like the Crusades J 1 ^ 

In the wake of Soviet and Arab attempts to delegitimize Israel as a racist country, Lewis wrote a study of anti-Semitism, 
Semites and Anti-Semites (1986) J 1 ^ In other works he argued Arab rage against Israel was disproportionate to other 
tragedies or injustices in the Muslim world: the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and control of Muslim-majority land in 
Central Asia, the bloody and destructive fighting during the Hama uprising in Syria (1982), the Algerian civil war (1992-98), 
and the Iran-Iraq War (1980-88)J 17 ^ 

In addition to his scholarly works, Lewis wrote several influential books accessible to the general public: The Arabs in 


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History (1950), The Middle East and the West (1964), and The Middle East (1995)/ 1 In the wake of the September 1 1, 

2001 attacks, the interest in Lewis's work surged, especially his 1990 essay The Roots of Muslim Rage. Three of his books 
were published after 9/11: What Went Wrong? (written before the attacks), which explored the reasons of the Muslim 
world's apprehension (and sometimes outright hostility) to the modernization, and The Crisis of Islam, and Islam: The 
Religion and the People (published in 2009). 

Armenian Genocide 

The first two editions of Lewis' The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961 and 1968) describe the Armenian massacres of 
WWI as "the terrible holocaust of 1915, when a million and a half Armenians perished"/ 18 ^ In later editions, this text is 
altered to: "the terrible slaughter of 1915, when, according to estimates, more than a million Armenians perished, as well as 
an u nk nown number of Turks."^ Lewis was later one of 69 scholars to co-sign a 1985 petition asking the US Congress to 
avoid a resolution condemning the events as "genocide". 

The change in Lewis' textual description of the Armenian massacres, and his signing of the petition against the Congressional 
resolution, was controversial among some historians and journalists, who suggested that Lewis was engaging in historical 
revisionism to serve his own political and personal interests/ 20 ^ 21 The original text had already drawn criticism for what 
some historians believe to be its exaggeration of unity and strength among Armenians/ 22 "[Lewis] implies that both had 
equal military and political force at their disposal to defend their interests. The fact is that the Armenians had neither a police 
force nor an army" 

Lewis later called the label "genocide" the "Armenian version of this history" in a November 1993 Le Monde article, for 
which he faced a civil proceeding in a French court. He was ordered to pay one franc as damages for his statements on the 
Armenian Genocide in Ottoman Turkey. Lewis has stated that while mass murders did occur, he did not believe there was 
sufficient evidence to conclude it was government-sponsored, ordered or controlled and therefore did not constitute 
genocide. The court stated that "by concealing elements contrary to his opinion, he neglected his duties of objectivity and 
prudence"/ 24 ^ Three other court cases against Bernard Lewis failed in Paris tribunal, including one filed by the Armenian 
National Committee of France and two filed by Jacques Tremolet de VillersJ 25 

When Lewis received the National Humanities Medal from US President George W. Bush in November 2006, the Armenian 
National Committee of America objected: "The President's decision to honor the work of a known genocide denier — an 
academic mercenary whose politically motivated efforts to cover up the truth run counter to the very principles this award 
was established to honor — represents a true betrayal of the public trust. "^- 26 ^ 

Lewis' views on the Armenian Genocide were criticized by a number of historians and sociologists, among them Alain 
Finkielkraut, Yves Temon, Richard G. Hovannisian, Albert Memmi, Pierre Vidal-Naquet/ 4 1 1 5 1 1 6 1 1 27 1 1 2X Stephen Zunes 
described Lewis as a "notorious genocide-denier"/ 29 ^ and Yair Auron suggested that "Lewis’ stature provided a lofty cover 
for the Turkish national agenda of obfuscating academic research on the Armenian Genocide"/ 30 ^ Israel Charny wrote that 
Lewis' "seemingly scholarly concern... of Armenians constituting a threat to the Turks as a rebellious force who together 
with the Russians threatened the Ottoman Empire, and the insistence that only a policy of deportations was executed, barely 
conceal the fact that the organized deportations constituted systematic mass murder"/ 31 ^ Charny compares the "logical 
structures" employed by Lewis in his denial of the genocide to those employed by Ernst Nolte in his Holocaust 
negationism/ 32 ] 

In response, Lewis argued that: 

There is no evidence of a decision to massacre. On the contrary, there is considerable evidence of attempts to 
^ prevent it, which were not very successful. Yes there were tremendous massacres, the numbers are very 

uncertain but a million may well be likely/ 33 ^ ...[and] the issue is not whether the massacres happened or not, 
but rather if these massacres were as a result of a deliberate preconceived decision of the Turkish 99 

government... there is no evidence for such a decision/ 34 ^ 

Lewis stated that he believed "to make [the Armenian Genocide], a parallel with the Holocaust in Germany" was "rather 


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absurd."^’ In an interview with Ha'aretz he stated: 

The deniers of Holocaust have a purpose: to prolong Nazism and to return to Nazi legislation. Nobody wants 
^ the 'Young Turks' back, and nobody wants to have back the Ottoman Law. What do the Armenians want? 

The Armenians want to benefit from both worlds. On the one hand, they speak with pride of their struggle 
against the Ottoman despotism, while on the other hand, they compare their tragedy to the Jewish Holocaust. 

I do not accept this. I do not say that the Armenians did not suffer terribly. But I find enough cause for me to 
contain their attempts to use the Armenian massacres to di min ish the worth of the Jewish Holocaust and to 99 
relate to it instead as an ethnic dispute^ 35 

Views and influence on contemporary politics 

In the mid- 1 960s, Lewis emerged as a commentator on the issues of the modem Middle East, and his analysis of the Israeli- 
Palestinian conflict and the rise of militant Islam brought him publicity and aroused significant controversy. American 
historian Joel Beinin has called him "perhaps the most articulate and learned Zionist advocate in the North American Middle 
East academic community Lewis's policy advice has particular weight thanks to this scholarly authority J 1 5 U.S. Vice 
President Dick Cheney remarked: "...in this new century, his wisdom is sought daily by policymakers, diplomats, fellow 
academics, and the news media. "^ 37 ^ 

A harsh critic of the Soviet Union, Lewis continues the liberal tradition in Islamic historical studies. Although his early 
Marxist views had a bearing on his first book The Origins of Ismailism, Lewis subsequently discarded Marxism. His later 
works are a reaction against the left-wing current of Third- worldism, which came to be a significant current in Middle 
Eastern studies.^ 

Lewis advocates closer Western ties with Israel and Turkey, which he saw as especially important in light of the extension of 
the Soviet influence in the Middle East. Modern Turkey holds a special place in Lewis's view of the region due to the 
country's efforts to become a part of the WestJ 1 He is a Honorary Fellow of the Institute of Turkish Studies, an honor which 
is given "on the basis of generally recognized scholarly distinction and... long and devoted service to the field of Turkish 
Studies. " [38] 

Lewis views Christendom and Islam as civilizations that have been in perpetual collision since the advent of Islam in the 7th 
century. In his essay The Roots of Muslim Rage (1990), he argued that the struggle between the West and Islam was 
gathering strength. According to one source, this essay (and Lewis' 1990 Jefferson Lecture on which the article was based) 
first introduced the term "Islamic fundamentalism" to North AmericaJ 34 This essay has been credited with coining the 
phrase "clash of civilizations", which received prominence in the eponymous book by Samuel HuntingtonJ 44 However, 
another source indicates that Lewis first used the phrase "clash of civilizations" at a meeting in Washington in 1957 where it 
is recorded in the transcript 

In 1998, Lewis read in a London-based newspaper Al-Quds Al-Arabi a declaration of war on the United States by Osama bin 
Laden. In his essay "A License to Kill", Lewis indicated he considered bin Laden's language as the "ideology of jihad" and 
warned that bin Laden would be a danger to the WestJ 44 The essay was published after the Clinton administration and the 
US intelligence community had begun its hunt for bin Laden in Sudan and then in Afghanistan. 

Stance on the Iraq War 

Jacob Weisberghas described Lewis as "perhaps the most significant intellectual influence behind the invasion of Iraq" J 42 ^ 
Michael Hirsh has attributed to him the view that regime change in Iraq would provide a jolt that would "modernize the 
Middle East" and suggested that Lewis' allegedly 'Orientalist' theories about "What Went Wrong" in the Middle East, and 
other writings, formed the intellectual basis of the push towards war in IraqJ 43 

Writing in 2008, Lewis did not advocate imposing freedom and democracy on Islamic nations. "There are things you can't 
impose. Freedom, for example. Or democracy. Democracy is a very strong medicine which has to be administered to the 
patient in small, gradually increasing doses. Otherwise, you risk killing the patient. In the main, the Muslim s have to do it 


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themselves. 


"[44] 

Ian Buruma, writing for The New Yorker in an article subtitled "The two minds of Bernard Lewis", finds Lewis's stance on 
the war difficult to reconcile with Lewis's past statements cautioning democracy's enforcement in the world at large. Buruma 
ultimately rejects suggestions by his peers that Lewis promotes war with Iraq to safeguard Israel, but instead concludes 
"perhaps he (Lewis) loves it (the Arab world) too much" : 

It is a common phenomenon among Western students of the Orient to fall in love with a civilization. Such 
^ love often ends in bitter impatience when reality fails to conform to the ideal. The rage, in this instance, is 

that of the Western scholar. His beloved civilization is sick. And what would be more heartwarming to an old 
Orientalist than to see the greatest Western democracy cure the benighted Muslim? It is either that or 
something less charitable: if a final showdown between the great religions is indeed the inevitable result of a 99 
millennial clash, then we had better make sure that we winJ 45 

Alleged nuclear threat from Iran 

In 2006, Lewis wrote that Iran had been working on a nuclear weapon for fifteen years. In August 2006, in an article about 
whether the world can rely on the concept of mutual assured destruction as a deterrent in its dealings with Iran, Lewis wrote 
in the Wall Street Journal about the significance of August 22, 2006 in the Islamic calendar. The Iranian president had 
indicated he would respond by that date to U.S. demands regarding Iran's development of nuclear power; Lewis wrote that 
the date corresponded to the 27th day of the month of Rajab of the year 1427, the day Muslims commemorate the night 
flight of the prophet Muhammad from Jerusalem to heaven and back. Lewis wrote that it would be "an appropriate date for 
the apocalyptic ending of Israel and, if necessary, of the world. "I 46 According to Lewis, mutual assured destruction is not an 
effective deterrent in the case of Iran, because of what Lewis describes as the Iranian leadership's "apocalyptic worldview" 
and the "suicide or martyrdom complex that plagues parts of the Islamic world today" He then suggests the possibility of 
a nuclear strike on Israel on August 22, 2006: 

What is the significance of Aug. 22? This year, Aug. 22 corresponds, in the Islamic calendar, to the 27th day 
^ of the month of Rajab of the year 1427. This, by tradition, is the night when many Muslims commemorate 
the night flight of the prophet Muhammad on the winged horse Buraq, first to "the farthest mosque," usually 
identified with Jerusalem, and then to heaven and back (cf Koran XVIL1). This might well be deemed an 
appropriate date for the apocalyptic ending of Israel and if necessary of the world. It is far from certain that 
Mr. Ahmadinejad plans any such cataclysmic events precisely for Aug. 22. But it would be wise to bear the 99 
possibility in mindJ 47 ^ 

The article received significant press coverage though the day passed without any incidentJ 4X 

In his 2009 book, Juan Cole responded that there was no evidence to suggest that Iran "had been working assiduously on a 
nuclear weapon for fifteen years". He also takes issue with Lewis' suggestion that Ahmedinejad "might deploy this weapon 
against Israel on August 22, 2006": 

Lewis's beliefs about Iran are even more bizarre than Ahmadinejad's about Israel, but unfortunately he had 
^ the ear of the Bush administration. Of course, nothing came of his ridiculous prophecy, which said more 99 

about the irrational anxieties of Western ultra-Zionists than about Iranian political reality. 


Debates with Edward Said 

Lewis is known for his literary sparrings with Edward W. Said, the Palestinian- American literary theorist whose aim was to 
deconstruct what he called Orientalist scholarship. Said, a professor at Columbia University, characterised Lewis's work as a 
prime example of Orientalism in his 1978 book Orientalism. Said asserted that the field of Orientalism was political 
intellectualism bent on self-affirmation rather than objective studyj 54 a form of racism, and a tool of imperialist 
domination J 5 ^ He further questioned the scientific neutrality of some leading Middle East scholars such as Bernard Lewis 
on the Arab world. In an interview with Al-Ahram Weekly, Said suggested that Lewis' knowledge of the Middle East was so 


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biased it could not be taken seriously, and claimed "Bernard Lewis hasn't set foot in the Middle East, in the Arab world, for 
at least 40 years. He knows something about Turkey, I'm told, but he knows nothing about the Arab world." 

Edward Said considered that Lewis treats Islam as a monolithic entity without the nuance of its plurality, internal dynamics, 
and historical complexities, and accused him of "demagogy and downright ignorance. 

Rejecting the view that western scholarship was biased against the Middle East, Lewis responded that Orientalism developed 
as a facet of European humanism, independently of the past European imperial expansion.^ He noted the French and 
English pursued the study of Islam in the 16th and 17th centuries, yet not in an organized way, but long before they had any 
control or hope of control in the Middle East; and that much of Orientalist study did nothing to advance the cause of 
imperialism. "What imperial purpose was served by deciphering the ancient Egyptian language, for example, and then 
restoring to the Egyptians knowledge of and pride in their forgotten, ancient past?"l 54 ^ 

Debates with Noam Chomsky 

In a 2002 interview with the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation's "Hot Type" program, linguist and political activist Noam 
Chomsky detailed a series of comments from a declassified Eisenhower Administration memo: 

President Eisenhower, in an internal discussion, observed to his staff, and I'm quoting now, "There's a 
^ campaign of hatred against us in the Middle East, not by governments, but by the people." The National 

Security Council discussed that question and said, "Yes, and the reason is, there's a perception in that region 
that the United States supports status quo governments, which prevent democracy and development and that 
we do it because of our interests in Middle East oil. Furthermore, it's difficult to counter that perception 99 

because it's correct."^ 55 ^ 

Chomsky claimed that Bernard Lewis omitted evidence of Western culpability for failures in the region. 

Lewis responded: 

It doesn't have to be more civilized, I mean the Roman Empire and the medieval Islamic Empire were not 
^ conquered by more civilized peoples, they were conquered by less civilized but more vigorous peoples. But 
in both cases what made the conquest, with the Barbarians in Rome and the Mongols in Iraq, what made it 
possible was things were going badly wrong within the society so that it was no longer able to offer effective 
resistance... Mr. Chomsky's views on Middle Eastern history are about as reliable as my views on 
linguistics... Obviously imperialist powers are not blameless in this respect. They did contribute, but they are 
not the cause of what went wrong. What went wrong is what enabled them to come and conquer these 
places. And the record of the Imperialist powers is by no means uniformly bad. They did some bad things, 
they also did some good things. They introduced infrastructure, they introduced modem education, they 
established a network of high schools and universities that previously did not exist, and many other things. 

They even tried to introduce constitutional government, parliamentary and constitutional government. It 
didn't take in the Islamic lands, but it worked quite well in India... "It's not our business what goes on inside 
these countries. Let them have tyrants as long as they're friendly tyrants rather than hostile tyrants." This is 
the familiar method that's been used in Central America, Southeast Asia and other places... There are people 99 
who believe in using the same methods, you know J 56 


Books 

■ The Origins of Ismailism (1940) 

■ A Handbook of Diplomatic and Political Arabic (1947) 

■ The Arabs in History (1950) 

■ The Emergence of Modern Turkey (1961) 

■ Istanbul and the Civilizations of the Ottoman Empire (1963) 

■ The Assassins: A Radical Sect in Islam (1967) 

■ The Cambridge History of Islam (2 vols. 1970, revised 4 vols. 1978, editor with Peter Malcolm Holt and An n K.S. 


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Lambton) 

■ Islam: From the Prophet Muhammad to the capture of Constantinople (1974, editor) 

■ History — Remembered, Recovered, Invented (1975) 

■ Race and Color in Islam (1979) 

■ Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire: The Functioning of a Plural Society (1982, editor with Benjamin 
Braude) 

■ The Muslim Discovery of Europe (1982) 

■ The Jews of Islam (1984) 

■ Semites and Anti-Semites (1986) 

■ Islam from the Prophet Muhammad to the Capture of Constantinople (1987) 

■ The Political Language of Islam (1988) 

■ Race and Slavery in the Middle East: an Historical Enquiry (1990) 

■ Islam and the West (1993) 

■ Islam in History (1993) 

■ The Shaping of the Modern Middle East (1994) 

■ Cultures in Conflict (1994) 

■ The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2, 000 Years (published in U.K. as The Middle East: 2, 000 Years of 
History from the Rise of Christianity to the Present Day ) (1995) 

■ The Future of the Middle East (1997) 

■ The Multiple Identities of the Middle East (1998) 

■ A Middle East Mosaic: Fragments of Life, Letters and History (2000) 

■ Music of a Distant Drum: Classical Arabic, Persian, Turkish, and Hebrew Poems (2001) 

■ The Muslim Discovery of Europe (2001) 

■ What Went Wrong?: The Clash Between Islam and Modernity in the Middle East (2002) 

■ The Crisis of Islam: Holy War and Unholy Terror (2003) 

■ From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting the Middle East (2004) 

■ Islam: The Religion and the People (2008, with Buntzie Ellis Churchill) 

■ Faith and Power: Religion and Politics in the Middle East (2010) Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195 144215 

References 

1 A abcdefghijklmn Martin (1999). "Bernard Lewis" (http://www.webcitation.org/query7urUhttp%3A%2F 

%2Fwww.martinkramer.org%2Fsandbox%2Freader%2Farchives%2Fbemard-lewis%2F&date=2010-ll-13) . Encyclopedia of 
Historians and Historical Writing. Vol. 1. London: Fitzroy Dearborn, pp. 719-720. http://www.webcitation.org/query7urUhttp 
%3A%2F%2Fwww.martinkramer.org%2Fsandbox%2Freader%2Farchives%2Fbemard-lewis%2F&date=2010-l 1-13. 

2. A James L. Abrahmson, "Will the West - and the United States - Go the Distance?" (http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat 
/item/2007/0406/ed_distancc.html) , American Diplomacy, 8 June 2007. Retrieved 6 March 2008. 

3. A "AEI's Weird Celebration" (http://www.slate.com/id/2161800) . Slate (magazine). March 14, 2007. http://www.slate.com 
/id/2161800. Retrieved 2008-02-29. 

4. A a h The Banality of Denial: Israel and the Armenian Genocide, Yair Auron, 2003, Transaction Publishers, ISBN 
0-7658-0834-X, p. 235 

5. A a h La province de la mort, p. 9, Leslie A. Davis, Yves Temon, 1994 

6. A a " Revolution and Genocide: On the Origins of the Armenian Genocide and the Holocaust, Robert Melson, University of 
Chicago Press, 1992, ISBN 0-226-51990-2, p. 289 

7. A Lewis, Bernard (2004) (PDF). From Babel to Dragomans: Interpreting The Middle East (http://www.us.oup.com 
/pdf/0195173368_intro.pdf) . Oxford University press, pp. 1-2. ISBN 0195173368. http://www.us.oup.com 
/pdf/0195173368_intro.pdf. Retrieved 2006-05-23. 

8. A "Bernard Lewis Cleveland E. Dodge Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Emeritus" (http://www.princeton.edu 
/~nes/faculty_lewis.html) , Department of Near Eastern Studies, University of Princeton, retrieved May 26, 2006. 

9. A Lewis (2004), pp. 3-4 

10. A Lewis (2004), pp. 6-7 

11. A Group Formed To Improve Middle East Scholarship (http://www.nysun.com/new-york/group-formed-to-improve-middle- 
east-scholarship/661 10/) , Annie Kami, New York Sun, November 8, 2007 

12. A ASMEA homepage (http://asmeascholars.com/) 

13. A Jefferson Lecturers (http://www.neh.gov/whoweare/jefflect.html) at NEH Website . Retrieved January 22, 2009. 

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September 1990. 


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/pub?id=l YRNmBFbo4R32F3j9QChFTPdTi8TIa0_D6ZQlD45vhAE) . Humanities 11 (3): 17-20. http://docs.google.com 
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18. A Karsh, Efraim. Islamic Imperialism: A History, page 356 

19. A [1] (http ://arc hive. frontpagemag.com/readArticle. aspx?ARTID=4127) 

20. A Dadrian, VahaknN. Warrant for genocide: key elements of Turko-Armenian conflict. 2003, page 131 

21. A Vryonis, Speros, Jr. The Turkish State and History (http://archive. frontpagemag.com/readArticle. aspx?ARTID=4127) 

22. A Melson, Robert. Revolution and Genocide. 1996, page 154-5 

23. A Grenke, Arthur. God, greed, and genocide: the Holocaust through the centuries. 2005, page 58 

24. A Lewis receives adverse civil judgment (http://www.voltairenet.org/articlel4133.html) , 21 June 1995 (French) 

25. A « Les actions engagees par les parties civiles armeniennes contre “le Monde” declarees irrecevables par le tribunal de Paris », 
Le Monde, 27 novembre 1994 ; « Lewis Replies » (http://www.princeton.edu/~paw/archive_old/PAW95-96/16_9596 
/06051et.html#story3) , Princeton Alumni Weekly, June 5, 1996 

26. A "Armenian Genocide Denier Bernard Lewis Awarded National Humanities Medal" (http://www.anca.org/press_releases 
/press_releases.php?prid=1024) , ANCA, November 22, 2006. Retrieved April 26, 2007. 

27. A Identity Politics in the Age of Genocide: The Holocaust and Historical Representation, By David B. MacDonald, Routledge, 
2008, ISBN 0-415-43061-5, p. 241 

28. A The Holocaust Industry: Reflections on the Exploitation of Jewish Suffering, By Norman G. Finkelstein, Verso, 2003, ISBN 
1-85984-488-X, p. 69 

29. A U.S. Denial of the Armenian Genocide (http://www.fpif.org/lpiftxt/4660) , by Stephen Zunes, Foreign Policy in Focus, October 
22,2007 

30. A The Islamization of Europe, By Andrew G. Bostom, FrontPageMagazine.com, Friday, December 31, 2004 
(http://www. frontpagemag.com/ Articles/Read. aspx?GUID=lBAEC8 10-1 8A9-4AF1 -A6B0-5A2698 1 5E84B) 

31. A The Psychological Satisfaction of Denials of the Holocaust or Other Genocides by Non-Extremists or Bigots, and Even by 
Known Scholars (http://www.ideajoumal. com/articles. php?id=27) , by Israel Chamy, "IDEA" journal, July 17, 2001, Vol.6, no. 1 

32. A Charny, Israel W. Fighting Suicide Bombing. 2007, page 241 

33. A a h Statement of Professor Bernard Lewis, Princeton University (http://www.ataa.org/magazine/blewis_statement.pdf) , 
"Distinguishing Armenian Case from Holocaust", Assembly of Turkish American Associations, April 14, 2002 (PDF) 

34. A Getler, Michael. "Documenting and Debating a 'Genocide'" (http://www.pbs.org/ombudsman/2006/04 
/documenting_and_debating_a_genocide.html) , The Ombudsman Column, PBS, April 21, 2006. Retrieved October 9, 2006. 

35. A Karpel, Dalia. "There Was No Genocide: Interview with Prof.Bemard Lewis " (http://www.ataa.org/ataa/ref/armenian 
/lewis. html) , Ha'aretz Weekly, January 23, 1998. Retrieved April 26, 2007. 

36. A Beinin, Joel. "Review of: Semites and Anti-Semites : An Inquiry into Conflict and Prejudice by Bernard Lewis 
(http://links.jstor.Org/sici7siciNJ888-0328%28198707%2F08%290%3A147%3C43%3ABLA%3E2.0.CO%3B2 -D),MER/R 
Middle East Report, No. 147, Egypt's Critical Moment (Jul., 1987), pp. 43-45. 

37. A "Remarks by Vice President Cheney at the World Affairs Council of Philadelphia Luncheon Honoring Professor Bernard 
Lewis" (http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gov/news/releases/2006/05/20060501-3.html) . May 1, 2006. 
http://georgewbush-whitehouse.archives.gOv/news/releases/2006/05/20060501-3.html. Retrieved 2007-01-26. 

38. A About ITS (http://www.turkishstudies.org/about.html) , Institute of Turkish Studies website. 

39. A Amber Plaque, "Islamophobia in North America: Confronting the Menace," in Barry van Driel, ed., Confronting Islamophobia 
in Educational Practice (Trentham Books, 2004), ISBN 1-85856-340-2, p.6, excerpt available online (http://books.google.com 
/books?id=TgBzFlEQ18oAC&pg=PAl&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=0_0#PPA6,Ml) at Google Books. 

40. A a h Ajami, Fouad (May 1, 2006). "A Sage in Christendom: A personal tribute to Bernard Lewis" 

(http://www.opinionjoumal. com/editorial/feature. html?id=l 100083 13) . OpinionJoumal. http://www.opinionjoumal.com/editorial 
/feature. html?id=l 100083 13. Retrieved 2006-05-23. 

41. A Ruthie Blum Liebowitz, ["One on One: When defeat means liberation," (http://www.jpost.com/servlet 
/Satellite?cid=1204546415778&pagename=JPost/JPArticle/ShowFull) Jerusalem Post, March 6, 2008 (interview with Bernard 
Lewis). 

42. A "AEI'S Weird Celebration" (http://www.slate.com/id/2161800) 

43. A "Bernard Lewis Revisited" (http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features/2004/0411.hirsh.html) , Washington Monthly, 
November 2004. Retrieved April 26, 2007. 

44. A One on One: When defeat means liberation (http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1204546415778& 
pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FPrinter) , Ruthie Blum, The Jerusalem Post, March 6, 2008 

45. A Lost in Translation: The two minds of Bernard Lewis (http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2004/06 
/14/040614crbo_books?currentPage=all) , Ian Biinima, The New Yorker, June 14, 2004 

46. A "August 22. Does Iran have something in store?" (http://www.opinionjoumal.com/extra/7kLH 10008768) , Wall Street Journal, 
August 8, 2006. 

47. A a h http://www.opinionjoumal.com/extra/?id=l 10008768 

48. A August 22 coverage: 


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■ CNN Headline News host Glenn Beck and MSNBC host Tucker Carlson (http://mediamatters.org/items/200608230009) . 

■ "World survives, but solution on Iran is no closer" (http://www.smh.com.au/news/world/world-survives-but-solution- 
on-iran-is-no-closer/2006/08/25/1 156012739245.html) Sydney Morning Herald, August 26, 2006. 

■ "World to end on August 22" (http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/brian_whitaker/2006/08 
/worl d_to_end_on_august_22.html) The Guardian, August 9, 2006. 

■ "Nuclear Apocalypse milder than expected" (http://www.theregister.co.uk/2006/08/23/lucky_to_be_alive/) The Register, 
August 23, 2006. 

■ "Apocalypse Now?" (http://article.nationalreview.com 
/?q=NWNmMWM5MjhhMzVjZTM0ZmIlZmJlYzAxNzU3NDEyMWI=) National Review, August 10, 2006. 

■ "Apocalypse now?" (http://www.jpost.com/servlet/Satellite?cid=1154525919089& 
pagename=JPost%2FJPArticle%2FShowFull) Jerusalem Post August 22, 2006. 

■ "Beware Aug. 22 and Iran's apocalyptic view" (http://www.thestar.com/NASApp/cs/ContentServer7pagenameMiestar 
/Fayout/Article_Typel&c=Article&cid=1155333027927&call_pageid=968332188854&col=968350060724) Toronto 
Star, August 12, 2006. 

■ "August 22: Doomsday?" (http://blogs.abcnews.com/theblotter/2006/08/is_tomorrow_doo.html) , ABC News Blotter, 
August 21, 2006. 

■ Chicago Tribune (http://www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/chi-0608190250augl9,l,1571531.story?coll=chi- 
opinionfront-hed) . 

49. A J. Cole, "Engaging the Muslim World", Palgrave MacMillan, 2009, p. 205 

50. A Said, Edward, Orientalism (Vintage Books: New York, 1979) ISBN 978-0-394-74067-6 Pg 12 

51. A Keith Windschuttle, "Edward Said's "Orientalism revisited," (http://www.newcriterion.com/archive/17/jan99/said.htm) The New 
Criterion January 17, 1999. Retrieved January 19, 1999. 

52. A Said, Edward. "Resources of hope," (http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2003/631/focus.htm) Al-Ahram Weekly April 2, 2003. 
Retrieved April 26, 2007. 

53. A Said, Edward."The Clash of Ignorance," (http://www.thenation.com/doc/2001 1022/said) The Nation October 22, 2001. 
Retrieved April 26, 2007. 

54. A Lewis, Bernard, Islam and the West, Oxford University Press, 1993, p.126 

55. A Solomon, Evan (April 16, 2002). "Hot Type Transcript: Noam Chomsky "9-11" Interview" (http://web.archive.org 
/web/20080604003830/http://www.cbc.ca/hottype/season02-03/middleeast_chomsky.html) . CBC News. Archived from the 
original (http://www.cbc.ca/hottype/season02-03/middleeast_chomsky.html) on June 4, 2008. http://web.archive.org 
/web/20080604003830/http://www.cbc.ca/hottype/season02-03/middleeast_chomsky.html. Retrieved November 21, 2010. 

56. A Solomon, Evan (May 17, 2002). "Hot Type: Bernard Lewis Interview: What Went Wrong? Western Impact and Middle Eastern 
Response" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20080430065534/http://www.cbc.ca/hottype/season02-03/middleeast_lewis.html) . CBC 
News. Archived from the original (http://www.cbc.ca/hottype/season02-03/middleeast_lewis.html) on April 30, 2008. 
http://web.archive.Org/web/20080430065534/http://www.cbc.ca/hottype/season02-03/middleeast_lewis.html. Retrieved 
November 21, 2010. 

External lin ks 

■ Lewis's Princeton University homepage (http://www.princeton.edu/~nes/faculty_lewis.html) 

■ The ASMEA Website (http://asmeascholars.com/) 

■ Atlantic Monthly: The Roots of Muslim Rage (http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/90sep/rage.htm) 

■ Li nks to online articles by Bernard Lewis at zionist.org (http://www.zionist.org/archives/000017.shtml) 

■ BookTV interview with Bernard Lewis (http://www.booktv.org/indepth/index.asp7schedidM 85&segid=3421) 

■ Booknotes interview with Bernard Lewis What Went Wrong?: Western Impact and Middle Eastern Response 
(http://booknotes.virage.com/vss-bin/vss_SR/cspan_booknotes/search/?template=search.tmpl&access=Private& 
ShowID- 1 65 7&_query4=Entire%20Program) 

■ Audio interview with Bernard Lewis at National Review Online (http://radio.nationalreview.com/betweenthecovers 
/post/?q=Mjk5YzY3YWMzNTczNDdmN2ZmNWQxNDc3NDQ5YjlkYWU=) 

■ The Washington Monthly: Bernard Lewis Revisited (http://www.washingtonmonthly.com/features 
/2004/041 l.hirsh.html) by Michael Hirsh 

■ CounterPunch: CounterPunch: Scholarship or Sophistry? Bernard Lewis and the New Orientalism 
(http ://www. CounterPunch. org/alam062 82 003 .html) 

■ Bernard Lewis featured in Slate Magazine's "AEI'S Weird Celebration" (http://www.slate.com/id/2161800) 

■ Bernard Lewis's famous post-9/1 1 commentary on the revolt of Islam against the West (http://www.newyorker.com 
/archive/2001/1 1/19/01 1 1 19fa_FACT2?currentPage=all) 

■ Ian Buruma, in The New Yorker, considers Lewis's stance on Iraq in light of Lewis's scholarship of the Middle East 
and views on democracy (http ://www.newyorker. com/archive/2004/06/ 1 4/0406 14crbo_books?currentPage=all) 


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■ Ismail Kiipeli: Was ging schief beim "Untergang des Morgenlandes"? Eine exemplarische Sichtung der 
Geschichtsdarstellung von Bernard Lewis (http://www.grin.com/e-book/70017/was-ging-schief-beim-untergang- 
des-morgenlandes-eine-exemplarische-sichtung) (German critique on Bernard Lewis) 

■ Bernard Lewis on Islam's Crisis (http://www.time.eom/time/world/article/0, 8599, 1843 104, OO.html) Interview, Time 
Magazine, 20 September 2008 

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bemard_Lewis" 

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